Determination of the specific heat of combustion of kerosene, comparison with oil

What is this?

Kerosene is a flammable mixture consisting of liquid hydrocarbons.
The boiling point of kerosene varies between 150-250° Celsius. It is a clear, colorless (in some cases yellowish) liquid, slightly oily to the touch. The word itself comes from English. kerosene. In turn, it has Greek roots: κηρός - “wax”.

Kerosene is obtained by direct distillation or ratification of petroleum. Sometimes - through its recycling. In some cases, the product is hydrotreated.

Kerosene as fuel:

Kerosene (English kerosene from ancient Greek κηρός - “wax”) is a flammable mixture of liquid hydrocarbons (from C8 to C15) with a boiling point in the range of 150-250 °C, obtained by direct distillation or rectification of oil.

Externally, kerosene is a transparent, colorless (or slightly yellowish, or light brown), slightly oily liquid to the touch. Has a characteristic smell of petroleum products.

Kerosene is a flammable, flammable liquid. Refers to low-hazard substances and, in terms of the degree of impact on the human body, in accordance with GOST 12.1.007, belongs to the 4th hazard class. Combustible fuel.

Kerosene is lighter than water. Does not dissolve in water.

Kerosene forms explosive mixtures with air

Composition of the substance

We figured out the boiling point of kerosene. Now let's imagine the composition of this product. It is not universal and standard, since it depends on the raw material - oil, its processing method and chemical composition.

So, the composition of kerosene according to GOST:

• Aliphatic saturated hydrocarbons - 20-60% of the total mass.
• Naphthenic hydrocarbons - 20-50%.
• Aromatic bicyclic hydrocarbons - 5-25%.
• Unsaturated hydrocarbons - up to 2%.
• Insignificant content of impurities - sulfur, oxygen or nitrogen.

Let us now imagine the most important properties of this substance.

Chemical composition and properties of kerosene

The chemical composition of kerosene obtained by cracking may vary depending on the type of oil it is derived from, as well as the technology used for its processing and further purification of the kerosene distillate. On average, this petroleum product may include:

• alifactic carbons in percentage from 20 to 60;
• naphthenic carbons in percentage from 20 to 50;
• bicyclic aromatic carbons in percentage from 5 to 25;
• unsaturated carbons in percentage up to 2.

At higher temperatures of kerosene

the amount of bicyclic aromatic carbons increases. At the same time, their lower content in the finished petroleum product helps to increase the intensity and brightness of the flame. A high percentage of heavy fractions leads to deterioration in the combustion of this petroleum product, therefore, after its production, special chemical and hydrotreating is carried out.

The high volatility of this product should also be taken into account. When the concentration in the air exceeds 300 mg/m3, there is a risk of poisoning by kerosene vapors. This imposes certain requirements on the storage conditions of this petroleum product.

Basic thermophysical characteristics of kerosene

Kerosene is the middle distillate of the petroleum refining process, defined as the fraction of crude oil that boils at a temperature between 145 and 300°C. Kerosene can be produced by distilling crude oil (straight-run kerosene) or from cracking heavier petroleum streams (cracking kerosene).

Crude kerosene has properties that make it suitable for blending with a variety of performance additives for use in a variety of commercial applications, including transportation fuels. Kerosene is a complex mixture of branched and straight chain compounds that can generally be divided into three classes: paraffins (55.2% by weight), naphthenes (40.9%) and aromatics (3.9%).

To be effective, all grades of kerosene must have the highest possible specific heat of combustion and specific heat capacity, and also be characterized by a fairly wide range of ignition temperatures. For different groups of kerosenes these indicators are:

• Specific heat of combustion, kJ/kg - 43000±1000.
• Self-ignition temperature, 0C, not lower than – 215.
• Specific heat capacity of kerosene at room temperature, J/kg K – 2000…2020.

It is impossible to accurately determine most of the thermophysical parameters of kerosene, since the product itself does not have a constant chemical composition and is determined by the characteristics of the original oil. In addition, the density and viscosity of kerosene depends on external temperatures. It is only known that as the temperature approaches the zone of stable combustion of the petroleum product, the specific heat capacity of kerosene increases significantly: at 2000C it is already 2900 J/kg K, and at 2700C it is 3260 J/kg K. Accordingly, the kinematic viscosity decreases. The combination of these parameters determines good and stable ignition of kerosene.

Ecology for the corn farmer

Together with scientists from the All-Russian Research Institute for Petroleum Refining, the company’s specialists began developing a formulation of unleaded fuel with an octane rating of 91 in 2014, and this work has now been completed.
Its result was the appearance of not even one, but two compositions. The first received the designation B-92/115 - for the Russian market. In terms of its characteristics, it fully complies with GOST leaded fuel B-91/115. The second is an analogue of unleaded aviation gasoline 91UL (ASTM D 7547), for which many leading manufacturers are now developing engines, such as, for example, one of the world leaders in this segment, Austrian Rotax. Petr Degtyarev, Director of the Oil Refining Directorate, Gazprom Neft:

“The work on 91st gasoline has been completed, applications for three patents have been submitted, one has already received confirmation, the other two are still at the examination stage,” said Valery Golovachev, chief specialist of the technical policy and innovation activities department of the oil refining and petrochemical development department of Gazprom Neft. “Russian and European normals do not differ much in composition, so production of the entire volume is planned to be located at one site at the Omsk Refinery.”

However, developing the fuel is half the battle. Even the best gasoline that meets all standards cannot be sold unless aircraft engine manufacturers have certified it for use in their products. This is what the Gazprom Neft refining directorate and the All-Russian Research Institute of NP are now doing, starting, of course, with enterprises that produce engines for the An-2 in Russia and Poland. Negotiations in this direction are also ongoing with Rotax. However, only half of the piston aircraft registered in the country can operate on 91-grade aviation gasoline. This is also reflected in statistics: 54% of sales of specialized fuel for piston aircraft engines are 100LL gasoline. Therefore, the company has already begun preparations for a new project, within the framework of which it is planned to develop an unleaded analogue of 100-grade aviation gasoline, and Omsk Refinery, as an industrial partner, has submitted an application to participate in the tender of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation for the development of such fuel.

Aviation gasoline standards

According to GOST 1012–2013, aviation gasolines are produced in the following grades:

— aviation gasoline B-91/115. Designed for operation of the ASh-62IR, AI-26V, M-14B, M-14P and M-14V-26 engines.

— aviation gasoline B-92. Supplied under state defense order. Developed as a result of a large set of tests as a single gasoline without standardization of the “grade on a rich mixture” indicator, under certain conditions it can be used instead of B-91/115 gasoline.

Currently, the most widely used imported gasoline with reduced lead content in Russia is Avgas 100LL. This is the main fuel for foreign aircraft, including such common helicopters as R-22, R-44, Cessna-172 aircraft and other types.

Kinematic viscosity

When characterizing kerosene according to GOST, this position will also be relevant. It must be said that the viscosity of the hydrocarbons included in this product changes significantly with a decrease/increase in its temperature. The higher the latter is, the lower the viscosity becomes.

This is a very important characteristic. The viscosity of kerosene has a great influence on a number of operational features of aircraft fuel systems, as well as combustion and mixture formation processes in the engine.

Thus, the viscosity of kerosene at 20 °C is 1.2 - 4.5 mm2/s.

Effect on the human body

The degree of toxicity of substances is related to their physical and chemical nature. Interacting with the body, combustion products cause pathological syndromes.

The International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision ICD-10, defines poisoning by combustion products with code T59 - “Toxic effects of other gases, fumes and vapors.”

According to the mechanism of action on humans, toxic components in smoke are divided into five groups.

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Carbon monoxide poisoning

Symptoms, first aid and prevention

1. Substances that cause damage to the skin and mucous membrane. Symptoms of such poisoning by combustion products are itching, burning of the skin and its inflammation, pain in the eyes, eyelids, lacrimation, cough. Examples are tar fumes, sulfur dioxide, formaldehyde.
2. Combustion products that cause acute inhalation poisoning. The victims complain of shortness of breath and cough. Upon examination, rapid breathing and cyanosis are noteworthy. High concentrations of toxic gas may cause respiratory arrest. Thus, signs of poisoning by PVC combustion products may appear within a few hours. Inhalation poisoning is caused by chlorine, ammonia, and nitric oxide.
3. Combustion products produce toxic substances, which are called “blood poisons.” By binding hemoglobin, they disrupt the access of oxygen to tissues and trigger pathological reactions that affect the entire body. Examples: carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide.
4. Combustion products for which the target organ is the nervous system. This is benzene, hydrogen sulfide.
5. Enzyme poisons that affect tissue respiration, blocking oxygen activation processes. This is hydrogen sulfide, hydrocyanic acid.

Many toxins that form in combustion products are “universal”, since they cause damage to several body systems at once.

The difference between kerosene and gasoline

The method for producing aviation kerosene is direct distillation of low-sulfur and sulfur oil. To improve the physicochemical properties of kerosene, various additives and hydrotreating are used. Kerosene has a number of advantages over gasoline:

• high heat of combustion (both mass and volumetric);
• low volatility;
• lower freezing point;
• low kinematic viscosity.
• In addition, kerosene is less fire hazardous than gasoline.

A significant advantage in using kerosene is its breadth of application. In addition to fuel for jet power plants, it is used on board as a coolant or coolant for radiators. To control the cross-section of the engine nozzle, a hydraulic system is used, the working fluid of which can also be kerosene. Needless to say, this type of fuel is an excellent solvent. This is extremely important when organizing the maintenance process of jet aircraft engines.

Density

One of the most important characteristics used for all petroleum products. And if we compare the density of kerosene and water, we will see that the latter will be higher. Here are the specific numbers:

• The density of distilled water at an “ideal” temperature of 3.7 °C is 1000 kg/m3.
• The density of sea water at an “ideal” temperature of 3.7 °C is 1030 kg/m3.
• The density of boiling water at 100 °C is 958.4 kg/m3.

To further compare the density of water and kerosene, let’s get acquainted with this characteristic regarding the petroleum product. This is 800 kg/m3.

It must be said that in the early stages of the development of the oil industry, density was the only characteristic of kerosene. Today, in practice, the quantity most often used is relative density. This is a dimensionless indicator equal to the ratio of the true densities of a given petroleum product and distilled water, taken for comparison at certain temperatures.

Thus, the density of kerosene at 20 °C will be from 780 to 850 kg/m3.

Types of fuel

It varies. But petroleum products and other fuels are easily flammable.

The classification is as follows:

The combustion temperature of kerosene and other products is different. It is quite difficult to measure it. The rules for extinguishing also vary. People who have a boiler naturally use solid materials to heat rooms.

Flash point

The next characteristic after the boiling point of kerosene is the flash point. This is a parameter that determines the degree of fire hazard of a given liquid. Here the flash point of kerosene will vary from 28 to 60 °C.

It must be said that this characteristic is strictly controlled by standards to prevent gasoline from entering the fuel, which can dramatically increase its flammability. The practical determination of the temperature of reactive flashes of kerosene liquid is prescribed by the standards of all countries of the world.

Auto-ignition temperature

Next up is another thermal indicator - the ignition temperature of kerosene. This characteristic should be understood as the ignition of the steam-air mixture, which leads to combustion. However, ignition of vapors will not always be a sufficient condition for stable combustion of kerosene.

The auto-ignition temperature is the lowest temperature at which petroleum product vapors together with air can ignite without the presence of an ignition source. By the way, the functioning of diesel internal combustion engines is based on this remarkable property.

Self-ignition of kerosene will occur at a temperature of 300 °C.

What is aviation fuel?

Fuel for use in the aviation industry is a flammable substance intended to be supplied mixed with air into the combustion chamber of an aircraft engine. The goal is to obtain thermal energy, which is released at the moment of oxidation of the mixture with oxygen, that is, combustion. The fuel poured into the coffered tanks of aircraft is divided into two types.

Aviation gasoline

This type of fuel is obtained using direct distillation, reforming or catalytic cracking. The main physical and chemical indicators of aviation gasoline are:

• resistance to detonation;
• chemical stability;
• factional composition.

Gasoline is characterized by high volatility and suitability for the formation of fuel-air mixtures necessary for current flight conditions.

This type of combustible mixture is used for combustion in piston internal combustion engines. Airplanes with such engines fly short distances on local airlines and are used for demonstration flights and air shows. The most popular brands in Russian small aviation were the brands of leaded gasoline for normal and lean mixtures, developed in the last quarter of the last century - B91/115 and B95/130. Today, the small aircraft fleet is fully fueled with regular AI-95 gasoline or imported AVGAS 100LL fuel.

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Aviation kerosene

Regular gasoline is not suitable for combustion in the combustion chamber of a turbojet aircraft engine . Piston engines use the effect of sudden ignition of the gasoline-air mixture to create a shock at the cylinder head. A completely different principle is used in jet engines. It is important here that the combustion is smooth. This is exactly what burnt aviation kerosene provides.

To fill the caissons of jet aircraft, fuel is used, which is obtained from the middle distillate kerosene fraction of oil with a boiling point of 150-280°C. 96-98% of the composition of aviation kerosene is naphthenic, paraffin and aromatic hydrocarbons. The rest of the composition comes from resins, nitrogenous and organometallic compounds.

How to prevent detonation

Fuel oil products are explosive substances, but you can avoid an emergency by following simple rules.

They are as follows:

• the engine must be operated at high speeds;
• use an intercooler to cool the charge air emerging from the front of the cylinder;
• choose the right candles;
• switch to high octane fuel.

Drivers of tanks transporting flammable substances must strictly comply with the requirements of GOST R 52734.

GNP

This abbreviation refers to the height of the non-smoking flame of the petroleum product. In particular, this is an important characteristic for KO-25 kerosene. Determines its ability to burn in a standard wick lamp (with a wick diameter of 6 mm) with a white, uniform flame without the formation of soot or soot.

This is a numerical indicator measured in millimeters. It must be indicated on the labels of the corresponding lighting brands of the product. GNP is directly influenced by the chemical and fractional compositions of kerosene.

Sequence for determining the specific heat of combustion

The indicator of the specific heat of combustion of kerosene establishes the conditions for its ignition in various devices - from engines to kerosene cutting devices. In the first case, the optimal combination of thermophysical parameters should be determined more carefully. There are usually several schedules for each fuel combination. These graphs can be used to evaluate:

1. Optimal ratio of mixture of combustion products.
2. Adiabatic flame temperature of combustion reaction.
3. Average molecular weight of combustion products.
4. Specific heat ratio of combustion products.

This data is necessary to determine the speed of the exhaust gases emitted from the engine, which in turn determines the engine's thrust.

The optimal fuel mixture ratio gives the highest specific impulse of energy and is a function of the pressure at which the engine will operate. An engine with high combustion chamber pressure and low exhaust pressure will have the highest optimum mixture ratio. In turn, the pressure in the combustion chamber and the energy intensity of kerosene fuel depend on the optimal mixture ratio.

In most engine designs using kerosene as fuel, much attention is paid to the conditions of adiabatic compression, when the pressure and volume occupied by the combustible mixture are in constant relationship - this affects the durability of engine elements. In this case, as is known, there is no external heat transfer, which determines the maximum efficiency.

Formulas for calculating volume

The type of formula for calculating the volume of complete combustion products with a theoretically required amount of air depends on the composition of the combustible substance.

Individual chemical compound

In this case, the calculation is carried out based on the combustion reaction equation. The volume of wet combustion products per unit mass (kg) of a combustible substance under normal conditions is calculated using the formula:

Where:

Vp.s. – volume of wet combustion products, m3/kg; – the number of kilomoles of carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrogen and combustible substances in the combustion reaction equation; M

– mass of flammable substance, numerically equal to molecular weight, kg.

For example, to determine the volume of dry combustion products of 1 kg of acetone under normal conditions, we create an equation for the combustion reaction of acetone in air:

CH3COCH3 + 4O2 + 4 3.76N2 = 3CO2 + 3H2O + 4 3.76N2

Determine the volume of dry combustion products of acetone:

The volume of wet combustion products of 1 m3 of combustible substance (gas) can be calculated using the formula:

Where:

Vp.s. – volume of wet combustion products of 1 m3 of combustible gas, m3/m3; – number of moles of carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrogen and flammable substance (gas).

Complex mixture of chemical compounds

If the elemental composition of a complex combustible substance is known, then the composition and amount of combustion products of 1 kg of substance can be determined from the equation of the combustion reaction of individual elements. To do this, equations are drawn up for the combustion reaction of carbon, hydrogen, sulfur and the volume of combustion products per 1 kg of combustible substance is determined. The combustion reaction equation has the form:

C + O2+ 3.76N2 = CO2 + 3.76N2

When 1 kg of carbon is burned, 22.4 / 12 = 1.86 m3 CO2 and 22.4 × 3.76/12 = 7.0 m3 N2 are obtained.

The volume (in m3) of combustion products of 1 kg of sulfur and hydrogen is determined in the same way. The data obtained is shown below:

When carbon, hydrogen and sulfur burn, oxygen comes from the air. However, the combustible substance may contain oxygen, which also takes part in combustion. In this case, correspondingly less air is consumed for combustion of the substance.

The combustible substance may contain nitrogen and moisture, which during the combustion process become combustion products. To account for them, it is necessary to know the volume of 1 kg of nitrogen and water vapor under normal conditions.

The volume of 1 kg of nitrogen is 0.8 m3, and the volume of water vapor is 1.24 m3. In air at 0 °C and a pressure of 101325 Pa, per 1 kg of oxygen there is 3.76 × 22.4 / 32 = 2.63 m3 of nitrogen.

Based on the given data, the composition and volume of combustion products of 1 kg of combustible substance are determined.

For example, to determine the volume and composition of wet combustion products of 1 kg of coal, consisting of 75.8% C, 3.8% H, 2.8% O, 1.1% N, 2.5% S, W = 3 .8%, A = 11.0%.

The volume of combustion products will be as follows, m3:

From the total volume of nitrogen, the volume of nitrogen attributable to oxygen in the composition of coal is subtracted 0.028 × 2.63 = 0.0736 m3. The result indicates the composition of the combustion products of coal: the volume of wet combustion products of 1 kg of coal is equal to:

Vp.s. = 1.4 + 0.462 + 6.6972 + 0.017 = 8.576 m3/kg.

Mixture of gases

The amount and composition of combustion products for a mixture of gases is determined by the equation of the combustion reaction of the components that make up the mixture. For example, methane combustion proceeds according to the following equation:

CH4 + 2O2 + 2 × 3.76N2 = CO2 + 2H2O + 7.52N2

According to this equation, the combustion of 1 m3 of methane produces 1 m3 of carbon dioxide, 2 m3 of water vapor and 7.52 m3 of nitrogen. The volume (in m3) of combustion products of 1 m3 of various gases is determined similarly:

Based on the given figures, the composition and quantity of combustion products of the gas mixture are determined.

Analysis of combustion products taken from fires in various rooms shows that they always contain a significant amount of oxygen. If a fire occurs in a room with closed window and door openings, then the fire in the presence of fuel can continue until the oxygen content in the mixture of air with combustion products in the room decreases to 14-16% (vol.). Consequently, during fires in enclosed spaces, the oxygen content in combustion products can range from 21 to 14% (vol.). The composition of combustion products during fires in rooms with open openings (basement, attic) shows that the oxygen content in them can be below 14% (vol.):

Based on the oxygen content in combustion products during fires, one can judge the coefficient of excess air at which combustion occurred.

Application of the substance

The fuel we know best is kerosene. The petroleum product is used as jet fuel in rockets and aircraft. This is also a well-known fuel used in firing porcelain and glass products. Kerosene is also produced for household lighting and heating devices. Used for metal cutting machines. It is also a solvent (for example, for applying pesticides), a raw material in oil refining.

Kerosene can actually be used as a substitute for Arctic and winter fuel. But in this case, it is not an equivalent alternative - it is necessary to add cetane-increasing and anti-wear additives. For multi-fuel engines (based on a diesel engine), it is possible to use pure kerosene, but only for a short time.

In winter, it will be acceptable to add 20% kerosene to summer diesel fuel in order to reduce the pour point of the latter. In this case, performance characteristics will not suffer.

As for the entertainment sector, here it is kerosene that acts as the main fuel when holding various fire shows (performances with the “participation” of fire). This is facilitated by its excellent absorbency and relatively low combustion temperature. In everyday life, kerosene is known to be used as a means to remove rust and wash various mechanisms.

What do planes fuel?

There are two types of aircraft fuel. Piston engines that power small airplanes and helicopters run on gasoline, just like car engines. True, the composition of such fuel is somewhat different from automobile fuel. The gas turbine engines (turbojet and turboprop) that power virtually all commercial aircraft today consume jet fuel, also called jet fuel.

The main brand of aviation kerosene, which in Russia fuels almost all passenger, transport and military subsonic aircraft and most helicopters, is TS-1 - sulfur fuel. It is produced from oil with a high sulfur content.

In Europe, the basis of the aviation fuel supply system is Jet A-1 kerosene. It is considered more environmentally friendly precisely due to its lower sulfur content - during its production, the straight-run kerosene-legroin fraction undergoes a complete hydrotreating procedure. Russian jet fuel is a mixture of hydrotreated and unrefined straight-run distillates. In general, these are analogues - moreover, the domestic product can be used at much lower temperatures than Jet. Today, the TS-1, along with the Jet A-1, is included in international documents and operating manuals not only for Russian-made aircraft, but also for aircraft of the Airbus and Boeing families (though only those operating flights within Russia). But this is jet fuel for civil aviation, not intended for supersonic aircraft.

Gazprom Neft has launched R&D to create unleaded aviation gasoline. Together with scientists from the All-Russian Research Institute of the Petroleum Industry, the company’s specialists began developing a formulation of unleaded fuel with an octane rating of 91 in 2014, and this work has now been completed.

The main aviation fuel for supersonic aviation is RT. During its production, aggressive and unstable compounds containing sulfur, nitrogen and oxygen are removed from petroleum distillate using hydrotreating

At the same time, the thermal stability of the fuel increases, which is extremely important when flying at supersonic speeds, when friction with the air heats up the entire aircraft body, and with it the fuel in the tanks

Of course, RT, which has such characteristics, can be used in conventional aircraft instead of TS-1. For the fastest aircraft, T-6 jet fuel is used, which has even greater thermal stability and increased density.

As for aviation gasoline, it is essentially automobile motor fuel, but with improved properties that affect engine reliability. It is the need to increase detonation resistance, octane number, grade, providing a reserve of dynamic characteristics and reliability, that forces aviation gasoline manufacturers to add tetraethyl lead to it (lead). Due to its toxicity, this additive has long been banned in the production of motor gasoline, but an airplane engine operates under much more intense conditions, and no one has yet succeeded in creating unleaded aviation gasoline that is not inferior in performance to leaded gasoline, the octane number of which exceeds 92–95.

At the same time, the most modern and advanced airplanes and helicopters with piston engines require aviation gasoline with a high octane number - no less than 100. Therefore, leading manufacturers and research centers around the world are now developing environmentally friendly analogues of leaded aviation gasoline 100LL (one of the most popular brands in the world). Gazprom Neft also has a similar program.

100 thousand flights operate around the world every day

Main directions in the use of kerosene

Kerosene is used in various fields. There are several main groups for its use:

Aviation fuel

Kerosene became widespread at a time when active development of turboprop and jet technology began throughout the world. The substance turned out to be the most suitable fuel. The reason is quite simple. The octane number of kerosene does not reach 50. This property made it ideal for refueling aircraft.

Jet fuel is one of the most common types of petroleum products.

Solvent and cleaner in production

There is another fairly popular type of this fuel - dearomatized or deep hydrogenation. The composition and characteristics of the raw materials are suitable for the production of polyvinyl chloride. Kerosene is used as a solvent. To use it for flushing, special additives are added to the substance. They prevent the accumulation of electrical charges.

Fuel and lubricant for household use

As in ancient times, lighting fixtures are fueled with kerosene. It is also suitable for incandescent lamps. Also among the areas of application of the substance:

• Metal cutting.
• Impregnation of leather.
• Dissolving varnish coatings, etc.

When choosing kerosene for any application, it is important that the mass of sulfur in the composition is minimal. This makes the raw materials safe for humans and the environment

To effectively use raw materials as fuel, it is important to take into account such indicators as:

• Turbidity level.
• Mass of kerosene.
• Height of non-smoking flame.
• Flash point.

They are considered especially carefully in aviation. This is due to the fact that flights take place at high altitudes. Since the atmosphere is at a very low temperature, it is important that the fuel does not transform into crystalline form.

If you want to learn more about the composition and characteristics of kerosene, or choose a specific type for any application, please contact our managers. Call, fuel specialists will help you understand all the nuances!

How to make 80 from 92 gasoline

Using the first formula, we find out the amount of kerosene per liter of the resulting 80th:

K= (92-80) / (92-45) = 12 / 47 ≈ 0.255 l

Using the third formula, we calculate how much kerosene needs to be added to 10 liters of 92 gasoline:

Kk= (10 ⋅ 0.255) / (1-0.255) = 2.55/0.745 ≈ 3.42 l

Bottom line: to get 80-grade gasoline from 10 liters of 92-grade gasoline, you need to pour 3.42 liters of kerosene into the second one.

Very often I am asked what we fueled the engines of Victory during the media expedition in 2022. Indeed, if in the vastness of our homeland it was still possible to find the 80th, then in Europe, especially in the eurozone, there is not even a 92nd, the 95th is rarely found, mainly the 98th, 100 and 102nd. Let me remind you that the Pobeda M20 engine has a compression ratio of 6.2 and is designed to run on 66-octane gasoline. We discussed for a long time how to solve this problem before the trip; there were options to boost the engines, order new camshafts with valve timing for high-octane fuel, change the valves to valves with soda, reduce the compression ratio by reducing the combustion chamber, etc. All this turned out to be labor-intensive and time-consuming, and also quite costly in terms of finances. In the end, it was decided to use a special fuel additive. So, during the trip in our Victories (all 4 cars) we used a fuel additive, the so-called tetraethyl lead. The photo shows a bottle with it.

Main areas of use

In conclusion, we present the most common areas of use of the substance:

• Aviation kerosene. This is the name of motor fuel for gas turbine engines, which are equipped with various aircraft. These are kerosene fractions of direct distillation of oil. They are often hydrotreated and additives are added to improve performance properties. In Russia, five varieties of such fuel are produced for subsonic aviation - TS-1, T-1, T-1S, T-2 and RT, and for supersonic aviation - two (T-6 and T-8V).
• Rocket kerosene. Here this petroleum product acts as a hydrocarbon, environmentally friendly fuel and the working fluid of hydraulic machines. Its use in rocket engines was proposed back in 1914 by Tsiolkovsky. Paired with liquid oxygen, it is used in the lower stages of many launch vehicles.
• Technical kerosene. This is a raw material for the production of aromatic hydrocarbons, ethylene, propylene. In addition, it is the main fuel for firing porcelain and glass, and a solvent for washing parts and mechanisms.
• Lighting kerosene (KO-25, KO-30, KO-20, KO-22). It is used in lighting fixtures and is used as fuel for some kitchen stoves (kerosene stoves, kerosene stoves, kerosene gas). Another use is in heating. This is a solvent, a cleaning agent (widely used to remove residues of thermal pastes, various paints and varnishes), and a degreaser.
• Automotive kerosene. This application was characteristic of the dawn of the development of internal combustion engines. The petroleum product was widely used as fuel for carburetor and diesel internal combustion engines.

Among the non-trivial uses, the following can be distinguished: a folk remedy for getting rid of lice, treating head lice and diphtheria. In addition, kerosene helped get rid of bedbugs when wiping furniture with it.

As you have seen, kerosene immediately determines a complex of characteristics. And this seems natural given its multiple uses.

Temperature of combustion of kerosene in air – Security Portal

Jet fuel TS-1 kerosene is produced from the middle distillate fraction of oil by direct distillation of oil, or in a mixture with a hydrotreated or demercaptanized component.

To bring the fuel to the standard requirements for the composition of total or mercaptan sulfur, either hydrotreating or demercaptanization is used.

Main performance characteristics: good volatility to ensure complete combustion; high combustion efficiency and heat to determine flight range; good pumpability and low-temperature properties for supply to the combustion chamber; low tendency to form deposits; good compatibility with materials and anti-wear and antistatic properties.

Application

Kerosene TS-1 is intended for use in subsonic aircraft.

Storage

The manufacturer guarantees that the fuel quality meets the requirements of this standard subject to the conditions of transportation and storage.

Guaranteed shelf life: 5 years from the date of manufacture.

Technical characteristics for kerosene TS 1

Notes:

1. Specific electrical conductivity is standardized only for fuels containing the antistatic additive Sigbol.

2. Fuel TS-1 of the highest and first grade, T-2 and RT, intended for use in all climatic regions, with the exception of region 11 (according to GOST 16350-80), can be produced with a crystallization onset temperature of no higher than minus 50 °C.

It is allowed to use in climatic region 11 (GOST 16350-80) TS-1 and RT fuels with a crystallization onset temperature not higher than minus 50 °C and an air temperature near the ground not lower than minus 30 °C within 24 hours before departure.

Fuel for use in climatic region 11 with a crystallization onset temperature not exceeding minus 55 °C (RT) and minus 60 °C (TS-1) is produced at the request of consumers.

3. T-1C fuel is intended for special consumption.

4. In fuel after long-term storage (more than 3 years), deviations from the standards specified in the table are allowed:

— in terms of acidity — by 0.1 mg KOH per 100 cm3 of fuel;

- according to the content of actual resins - by 2 mg per 100 cm3 of fuel;

- by the amount of sediment when determining thermal stability under static conditions - by 2 mg per 100 cm3 of fuel.

5. At the request of consumers, T-1 fuel must be produced with a density at 20 °C of at least 810 kg/m3.

6. When producing RT grade fuel with the Hi-Tek-580 additive, the standard for indicator 6 is set to no more than 0.7 mg KOH/100 cm3.

Acceptance rules

Jet fuel is accepted in batches.

A batch is considered to be any quantity of fuel produced in one continuous technological process, homogeneous in its quality indicators and component composition, documented in one quality document. The document must indicate the amount of anti-wear, anti-oxidation and antistatic additives introduced during the manufacture of fuel.

Sample size - according to GOST 2517-85.

If unsatisfactory test results are obtained for at least one indicator, repeated tests are carried out on a newly selected sample taken from the same sample.

The results of repeated tests apply to the entire batch.

Safety

Jet engine fuels are a flammable liquid, boiling in the range of 130–280 °C for RT, TS-1 and T-1 fuels and 60-280 °C for T-2 fuel; The auto-ignition temperature of fuels RT, TS-1, T-1, T-1S is 220 °C, fuel T-2 is 230 °C.

The temperature limits for ignition of fuel vapors and concentrated explosion limits are given in the table:

Composition and characteristics of kerosene, main properties of different types

07.02.2018

The properties of kerosene have made it in demand in various fields. A transparent, oily liquid suitable for use as fuel, fuels and lubricants and all kinds of additives. Kerosene is resistant to low temperatures and has high combustion and evaporation rates. It is also compatible with raw materials having a different composition.

Kerosene, a petroleum product obtained by rectification and recycling of raw materials. In some cases, it is additionally hydrotreated

Technical kerosene

Technical kerosene is used as a raw material for the pyrolytic production of ethylene, propylene and aromatic hydrocarbons, as a fuel mainly for firing glass and porcelain products, and as a solvent for washing mechanisms and parts. Kerosene, dearomatized by deep hydrogenation (contains no more than 7% aromatic hydrocarbons), is a solvent in the production of PVC by polymerization in solution. Additives containing magnesium and chromium salts are added to kerosene used in washing machines to prevent the accumulation of static electricity charges. In Russia, standards for technical kerosene are set by GOST 18499-73 “Kerosene for technical purposes”